Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
ASPHC Baner

ONLINE FIRST

Review paper

Dynamics of Epichloë-grass relationships: an analysis of the dualistic nature

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24326/asphc.2026.5635
Submitted: 5 November 2025
Published: 17.04.2026

Abstract

This review provides a comprehensive discussion of Epichloë fungi, grass endophytes that form deeply integrated symbioses, including the taxonomy and morphology of these organisms, along with the evolution of their classification based on molecular data. The complex nature of their symbiotic interactions is detailed, ranging from mutualistic protection against biotic and abiotic stresses (e.g., drought, silicon accumulation, enhanced photosynthesis) to potential livestock toxicity  resulting from alkaloid production. We present  analyses of the fungi’s life cycles, including vertical (mutualistic) and horizontal (pathogenic) transmission, and the role of hybridization in shaping alkaloid profiles. The production of alkaloids (lolines, indole-diterpenes, ergot alkaloids, peramine) and their biological effects are discussed.  We also highlight the dynamics of host specificity and coevolution. Furthermore, detection and characterization methods are presented, emphasizing molecular techniques like PCR and microsatellite analysis for rapid and precise strain identification. Finally, the significant agronomic and ecological implications of Epichloë endophytes are addressed, underscoring their potential in sustainable agriculture through the development of “safe” and effective strains. New topics included in the review include information on the use of modern molecular markers for rapid and precise strain identification. Furthermore, the review highlights the extended benefits of endophyte presence for the host through silicon accumulation and manipulation of photosynthesis, as well as a new approach to alkaloid biosynthesis through domain shuffling, which allows for genetically based prediction of alkaloid profiles.

References

  1. Aniszewski, T. (2007). Alkaloids – secrets of life. Alkaloid chemistry, biological significance, aplications and ecological role. Elsevier Radarweg, Amsterdam.
  2. Bastias, D.A., Martínez-Ghersa, M.A., Ballaré, C.L. et al. (2017). Epichloë Fungal endophytes and plant defenses: not just alkaloids. Trends Plant Sci., 22(11), 939‒948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.08.005
  3. Becker, M., Becker, Y., Green, K. et al. (2016). The endophytic symbiont Epichloë festucae establishes an epiphyllous net on the surface of Lolium perenne leaves by development of an expressorium, an appressorium-like leaf exit structure. New Phytol., 211, 240–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13931
  4. Berry, D., Mace, W., Grage, K. et al. (2019). Efficient nonenzymatic cyclization and domain shuffling drive pyrrolopyrazine diversity from truncated variants of a fungal NRPS. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (PNAS), 116(51). https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1913080116
  5. Bultman, T.L., White, J.F., Bowdish, T.I. et al. (1998). A new kind of mutualism between fungi and insects. Mycol. Res., 102, 235‒238.
  6. Bush, L.P., Fannin, F., Siegel, M. et al. (1993). Chemistry, occurrence and biological effects of saturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids associated with endophyte-grass interactions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 44, 81–102.
  7. Bush, L.P., Wilkinson, H.H, Schardl, C.L. (1997). Bioprotective alkaloids of grass-fungal endophyte symbioses. Plant Physiol., 114(1), 1‒7. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.1.1
  8. Cagaš, B., Flieger, M., Olsovska, J. (1999). Concentration of ergot alkaloids in Czech ecotypes of Lolium perenne and Festuca pratensis. Grass Forage Sci., 54, 365‒370.
  9. Caradus, J., Chapman, D.F., Cookson, T. et al. (2021). Epichloë endophytes – new perspectives on a key ingredient for resilient perennial grass pastures. Resil. Past. Grass. Res. Pract. Ser., 17, 347‒360. https://doi.org/10.33584/rps.17.2021.34
  10. Caradus, J.R., Johnson, L.J. (2020). Epichloë fungal endophytes – from a biological curiosity in wild grasses to an essential component of resilient high performing ryegrass and fescue pastures. J. Fungi, 6(4), 322. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040322
  11. Caradus, J.R. (2023). Epichloë fungal endophytes – a vital component for perennial ryegrass survival in New Zealand. New Zeal. J. Agric. Res., 67(4), 451–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2023.2170426
  12. Card, S.D., Bastías, D.A., Caradus, J.R. (2021). Antagonism to plant pathogens by Epichloë fungal endophytes—a review. Plants, 10(10), 1997.
  13. Charlton, N.D., Craven, K.D., Afkhami, M.E. et al. (2014). Interspecific hybridization and bioactive alkaloid variation increases diversity in endophytic Epichloë species of Bromus laevipes. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 90(1), 276‒289. https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6941.12393
  14. Chen, Z., White, J.F., Malik, K. et al. (2022). Soil nutrient dynamics relate to Epichloë endophyte mutualism and nitrogen turnover in a low nitrogen environment. Soil Biol. Biochem., 174, 108832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2022.108832
  15. Cheplick, G.P., Faeth, S.H. (2009). Ecology and evolution of the grass-endophyte symbiosis. Oxford University Press.
  16. Christensen, M.J. (1995). Variation in the ability of Acremonium endophytes of Lolium perenne, Festuca arundinacea and F. pratensis to form compatible associations in the three grasses. Mycol. Res., 99, 466‒470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80647-3
  17. Christensen, M.J. (2008). Epichloë and Neotyphodium: the relationship with the host plant. In: C.L., Schardl, J.F., White, Jr, A.M., de Bary (eds.), The Epichloë–grass symbiosis: a new paradigm for mutualism. Springer, 53‒73.
  18. Christensen, M.J., Ball, O.J.-P., Bennett, R.J. et al. (1997). Fungal and host genotype effects on compatibility and vascular colonization by Epichloë festucae. Mycol. Res., 101, 493–501.
  19. Chung, K.R., Hollin, W., Siegel, M.R. et al. (1997). Genetics of host specificity in Epichloë typhina. Phytopathology, 87, 599–605.
  20. Cibils-Stewart, X., Powell, J.R., Popay, A.J. et al. (2020). Reciprocal effects of silicon supply and endophytes on silicon accumulation and Epichloë colonization in grasses. Front. Plant Sci., 11, 593198. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.593198
  21. Clay, K. (1990). The impact of parasitic and mutualistic fungi on plants. In: J.B., Grace, D. Tilman (eds.), Perspectives on plant competition. Academic Press, San Diego, 391‒412.
  22. Clay, K., Schardl, C. (2002). Evolutionary origins and ecological consequences of endophyte symbiosis with grasses. Am. Nat., 160, Suppl. 4, S99‒S127. https://doi.org/10.1086/342161
  23. Clay, K. (1988). Fungal endophytes of grasses: a defensive mutualism between plants and fungi. Ecology, 69(1), 10‒16.
  24. Craven, K.D., Blankenship, J.D., Leuchtmann, A. et al. (2001). Hybrid fungal endophytes symbiotic with the grass Lolium pratense. Sydowia 53, 44–73.
  25. Decunta, F.A., Pérez, L.I., Malinowski, D.P. et al. (2021) A systematic review on the effects of Epichloë fungal endophytes on drought tolerance in cool-season grasses. Front. Plant Sci., 12, 644731. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.644731
  26. Dodds, P., Rathjen, J. (2010). Plant immunity: towards an integrated view of plant-pathogen interactions. Nat. Rev. Genet. 11(8), 539–548. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2812
  27. Dombrowski, J.E., Baldwin, J.C., Azevedo, M.D. et al. (2006). A sensitive PCR-based assay to detect Neotyphodium fungi in seed and plant tissue of tall fescue and ryegrass species. Crop Sci., 46, 1064–1070.
  28. Doss, R.P., Welty, R.E. (1995). A polymerase chain reaction-based procedure for detection of Acremonium coenophialum in tall fescue. Phytopathology, 85(8), 913‒917.
  29. Dougherty, C.T., Lauriault, L.M., Bradley, N.W. et al. (1991). Induction of tall fescue toxicosis in heat-stressed cattle and its alleviation with thiamin. J. Anim. Sci., 69(3), 1008–1018.
  30. Drake, I., White, Jr, J.F., Belanger, F.C. (2018). Identification of the fungal endophyte of Ammophila breviligulata (American beachgrass) as Epichloë amarillans. Peer J., 6, e4300. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4300
  31. Du, M., Wang, T., Li, C., Chen, T. (2024). Discovery and characterization of Epichloë fungal endophytes from Elymus spp. in Northwest China. Microorganisms, 12(7), 1497. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12071497
  32. Emile, J.C., Surault, F., Bony, S. et al. (2000). Effects of ergovaline in forage grasses on feeding value and animal performance. Proceedings of the 4th International Neotyphodium/Grass Interaction Symposium, Soest, Germany, 521‒523.
  33. Faeth, S.H., Sullivan, T. (2003). Mutualistic asexual endophytes in a native grass are usually parasitic. Am. Nat., 161(2), 310–325.
  34. Fardella, P. (2024). Harnessing antifungal proteins from fungi to protect plants: a review of the Epichloë festucae antifungal protein Efe-AfpA. Grass Res., 4, e003. https://doi.org/10.48130/grares-0024‒0001
  35. Fletcher, L.R., Easton, H.S. (2000). Using endophytes for pasture improvement in New Zealand. Proceedings of the 4th International Neotyphodium/Grass Interactions Symposium, Soest, Germany, 149‒162.
  36. Fredell, G., Bienkowski, D., Light, S.E. et al. (2025). Distribution, potential commercial adoption, and possible impacts of the endophytic fungus, Epichloë, in UK pasture grasses and cereals, plant health cases. Plant Health Cases, phcs20250002. https://doi.org/10.1079/planthealthcases.2025.0002
  37. Gams, W., Petrini, O., Schmidt, D. (1990). Acremonium uncinatum, a new endophyte in Festuca pratensis. Mycotaxon, 37, 67–71.
  38. Grabka, R., d’Entremont, T.W., Adams, S.J. et al. (2022). Fungal endophytes and their role in agricultural plant protection against pests and pathogens. Plants, 11, 384. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11030384
  39. Guerre, P. (2015). Ergot alkaloids produced by endophytic fungi of the genus Epichloë. Toxins, 7(3), 773‒790. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins7030773
  40. Gundel, P.E., Biganzoli, F., Freitas, P.P. et al. (2020). Plant damage, seed production and persistence of the fungal endophyte Epichloë occultans in Lolium multiflorum plants under an herbivore lepidopteran attack and ozone pollution. Ecol. Austral., 30, 321‒330.
  41. Gwinn, K.D., Collins-Shepard, M.H., Reddick, B.B. (1991). Tissue print-immunoblot, an accurate method for the detection of Acremonium coenophialum in tall fescue. Phytopathology, 81(7), 747‒748.
  42. Hill, N.S., Hiatt, E.E., De Battista, J.P. et al. (2002). Seed testing for endophytes by microscope and immunoblot procedures. Seed Sci. Technol., 30(2), 347‒355.
  43. Huggett, J.F., Whale, A. (2013). Digital PCR as a novel technology and its potential implications for molecular diagnostics. Clin. Chem. 59(12), 1691‒1693. https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2013.214742
  44. Johnson, L.J., Caradus, J.R. (2019). The science required to deliver Epichloë endophytes to commerce. In: T.R., Hodkinson, F.M., Doohan, M.J. et al. (eds.), Endophytes for a growing world. Chapter 16. Cambridge University Press, Cambrige, 343‒370. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108607667.017
  45. Johnson, L.J., de Bonth, A.C.M., Briggs, L.R. et al. (2013). The exploitation of Epichloë endophytes for agricultural benefit. Fung. Div., 60, 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-013-0239-4
  46. Jones, J.D.G., Dangl, J.L. (2006). The plant immune system. Nature, 444(7117), 323‒329.
  47. Karpyn Esqueda, M., Yen, A.L., Rochfort, S. et al. (2017). A review of perennial ryegrass endophytes and their potential use in the management of African black beetle in perennial grazing systems in Australia. Front. Plant Sci., 8(3). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00003
  48. Kuldau, G., Bacon, C. (2008). Clavicipitaceous endophytes: their ability to enhance resistance of grasses to multiple stresses. Biol. Cont., 46(1), 57‒71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2008.01.023
  49. Latch, G.C.M., Christensen, M.J. (1985). Artificial infection of grasses with endophytes. Ann. Appl. Biol., 107(1), 17‒24.
  50. Lee, K., Missaoui, A., Mahmud, K. et al. (2021). Interaction between grasses and Epichloë endophytes and its significance to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and the rhizosphere. Microorganisms, 9(11), 2186. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9112186
  51. Leuchtmann, A., Schmidt, D., Bush, P.L. (2000). Different levels of protective alkaloids in grasses with stroma-forming and seed-transmited Epichloë/Neotyphodium endophytes. J. Chem. Ecol., 26(4), 1025‒1035.
  52. Leuchtmann, A., Bacon, C.W., Schardl, C.L. et al. (2014). Nomenclatural realignment of Neotyphodium species with genus Epichloë. Mycologia, 106(2), 202–215. https://doi.org/10.3852/13-251
  53. Li, F., Guo, Y., Christensen, M.J. et al. (2018). An arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus and Epichloë festucae var. lolii reduce Bipolaris sorokiniana disease incidence and improve perennial ryegrass growth. Mycorrhiza, 28(2), 159‒169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-017-0813-9
  54. Luna-Fontalvo, J.A., Balocchi, O., Martínez, O. et al. (2025). Symbiosis between Epichloë fungi and Bromus grasses: a review of current knowledge and future directions. J. Fungi, 11, 807. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11110807
  55. Ma, J.F., Yamaji, N. (2006). Silicon uptake and accumulation in higher plants. Trends Plant Sci., 11(8), 392–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2006.06.007
  56. Malinowski, D.P., Alloush, G.A., Belesky, D.P. (2000). Leaf endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum modifies mineral uptake in tall fescue. Plant Soil, 227, 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026518828237
  57. Malinowski, D.P., Belesky, D.P. (2000). Adaptations of endophyte-infected cool-season grasses to environmental stresses: mechanisms of drought and mineral stress tolerance. Crop Sci., 40, 923‒ 940. http://dx.doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2000.404923x
  58. Malinowski, D.P., Belesky, D.P. (2019). Epichloë (formerly Neotyphodium) fungal endophytes increase adaptation of cool-season perennial grasses to environmental stresses. Acta Agrobot., 72(2), 1767. https://doi.org/10.5586/aa.1767
  59. Mathew, S.A., Helander, M., Saikkonen, K. et al. (2022). Epichloë endophytes shape the foliar endophytic fungal microbiome and alter the auxin and salicylic acid phytohormone levels in two meadow fescue cultivars. J. Fungi, 9(1), 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9010090
  60. Moon, C.D., Craven, K.D., Leuchtmann, A. et al. (2004). Prevalence of interspecific hybrids amongst asexual fungal endophytes of grasses. Mol. Ecol. 13(6), 1455‒1467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02138.x
  61. Moon, C.D., Miles, C.O., Järlfors, U. et al. (2002). The evolutionary origins of three new Neotyphodium endophyte species from grasses indigenous to the Southern Hemisphere. Mycologia, 94(4), 694‒711.
  62. Moon, C.D., Scott, B., Schardl, C.L. et al. (2000). The evolutionary origins of Epichloë endophytes from annual ryegrasses. Mycologia, 92(6), 1103–1118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2000.12061258
  63. Moore, J.R., Pratley, J.E., Mace et al. (2015). Variation in alkaloid production from genetically diverse Lolium accessions infected with Epichloë species. J. Agric. Food Chem., 63(48), 10355–10365. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b03089
  64. Nagabhyru, P., Dinkins, R.D., Schardl, C.L. (2022). Transcriptome analysis of Epichloë strains in tall fescue in response to drought stress. Mycologia, 114(4), 697–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2022.2060008
  65. Oliveira, J.A., Rottinghaus, G.E., Collar, J. et al. (1997). Perennial ryegrass endophytes in Galicia, Northwest Spain. J. Agric. Sci., 129(2), 173–177. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859697004711
  66. Omacini, M., Semmartin, M., Pérez, L.I. et al. (2012). Grass–endophyte symbiosis: a neglected aboveground interaction with multiple belowground consequences. Appl. Soil Ecol., 61, 273–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2011.10.012
  67. Philipson, M.N., Christey, M.C. (1986). The relationship of host and endophyte during flowering, seed formation, and germination of Lolium perenne. New Zeal. J. Bot., 24(1), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/0028825x.1986.10409724
  68. Popay, A.J., Bonos, S.A. (2005). Biotic responses in endophytic grasses. In: C.A., Roberts, C.P. West, D.E., Spiers (eds.), Neotyphodium in cool-season grasses. Blackwell Publishing, Iowa, 163–185.
  69. Popay, A.J., Hume, D.E., Mainland, R.A. et al. (1995). Field resistance to Argentine stem weevil (Listronotus bonariensis) in different ryegrasscultivars infected with an endophyte deficient in lolitrem B. New Zeal. J. Agric. Res., 38, 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.1995.9513154
  70. Popay, A.J., Townsend, R.J., Fletcher, L.R. (2003). The effect of endophyte (Neotyphodium uncinatum) in meadow fescue on grass grub larvae. New Zeal. Plant Prot., 56, 123–128. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470384916.ch7
  71. Pozo, M.J., Zabalgogeazcoa, I., Vazquez de Aldana, B.R. et al. (2021). Untapping the potential of plant mycobiomes for applications in agriculture. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol., 60, 102034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2021.102034
  72. Realini, F.M., Escobedo, V.M., Ueno, A.C. et al. (2024). Anti-herbivory defences delivered by Epichloë fungal endophytes: a quantitative review of alkaloid concentration variation among hosts and plant parts. Ann Bot., 133(4), 509–520. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcae014
  73. Redman, R.S., Sheehan, K.B., Stout, R.G. et al. (2002). Thermotolerance generated by plant/fungal symbiosis. Science, 298(5598), 1581. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078055
  74. Rodriguez, R.J., Redman, R.S. (2008). More than 400 million years of evolution and some plants still can’t make it on their own: plant stress tolerance via fungal symbiosis. J. Exp. Bot., 59(5), 1109–1114. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erm342
  75. Rodriguez, R.J., White Jr, J.F., Arnold, A.E. et al. (2009). Fungal endophytes: diversity and functional roles. New Phytol., 182(2), 314–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02773.x
  76. Rozpądek, P., Wężowicz, K., Nosek, M. et al. (2015). The fungal endophyte Epichloë typhina improves photosynthesis efficiency of its host orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata). Planta, 242, 1025–1035. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-015-2337-x
  77. Rudolph, W., Remane, D., Wissenbach, D.K. et al. (2018). Development and validation of an ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry assay for nine toxic alkaloids from endophyte-infected pasture grasses in horse serum. J. Chromatogr. A, 1560, 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2018.05.013
  78. Saikkonen, K., Young, C.A., Helander, M. et al. (2016). Endophytic Epichloë species and their grass hosts: from evolution to applications. Plant Mol. Biol., 90, 665–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-015-0399-6
  79. Saikkonen, K., Faeth, S.H., Helander, M. et al. (1998). Fungal endophytes: a continuum of interactions with host plants. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 29, 319–343. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.319
  80. Sarkar, S., Dey, A., Kumar, V. et al. (2021). Fungal endophyte: an interactive endosymbiont with the capability of modulating host physiology in myriad ways. Front. Plant Sci., 12, 701800. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.701800
  81. Schardl, C.L. (1996). Epichloë species: fungal symbionts of grasses. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol., 34(1), 109–130. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.34.1.109
  82. Schardl, C.L. (2010). The Epichloë, symbionts of the grass subfamily Poöideae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard., 97, 646–665. https://doi.org/10.3417/2009144
  83. Schardl, C.L., Craven, K.D. (2003). Interspecific hybridization in plant-associated fungi and oomycetes: a review. Mol. Ecol., 12(11), 2861–2873. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.2003.01965.x
  84. Schardl, C.L., Leuchtmann, A. (2005). The Epichloë endophytes of grasses and the symbiotic continuum. In: J., Dighton, J.F., White, Jr, P.V., Oudemans (eds.), The fungal community. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
  85. Schardl, C.L., Leuchtmann, A., Spiering, M.J. (2004). Symbioses of grasses with seedborne fungal endophytes. Ann. Rev. Plant Biol., 55, 315–340. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.55.031903.141735
  86. Schardl, C.L., Young, C.A., Faulkner, J.R. et al. (2012). Chemotypic diversity of Epichloë, fungal symbionts of grasses. Fungal Ecol., 5(3), 331–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2011.04.005
  87. Schardl, C.L., Florea, S., Pan, J. et al. (2013a). The Epichloë: alkaloid diversity and roles in symbiosis with grasses. Curr. Opin. Plant. Biol., 16(4), 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2013.06.012
  88. Schardl, C.L., Young, C.A., Hesse, U. et al. (2013b). Plant-symbiotic fungi as chemical engineers: multi-genome analysis of the clavicipitaceae reveals dynamics of alkaloid loci. PLoS Genet., 9(2), e1003323. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1003323
  89. Schardl, C.L., Florea, S., Nagabhyru, P. et al. (2025). Chemotypic diversity of bioprotective grass endophytes based on genome analyses, with new insights from a Mediterranean-climate region in Isfahan Province, Iran. Mycologia 117(1), 34–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2024.2430174
  90. Schreiber, M., Jayakodi, M., Stein, N. et al. (2024). Plant pangenomes for crop improvement, biodiversity and evolution. Nat. Rev. Genet., 25(8), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-024-00691-4
  91. Scott, B., Becker, Y., Becker, M. et al. (2012). Morphogenesis, growth and development of the grass symbiont Epichloë festucae. In: J.P. Martin, A., Di Pietr (eds.). Morphogenesis and pathogenicity in fungi. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 243–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22916-9_12
  92. Sharma, R., Tangjang, S., Shukla, A.C. (2020). Molecular characterization of endophytic fungi associated with Centella asiatica Linn., inhabiting wildly in Arunachal Pradesh. J. Ind. Bot. Soc., 100(3–4), 160–168. https://doi.org/10.5958/2455-7218.2020.00038.8
  93. Siegel, M.R., Bush, L.P. (1996). Defensive chemicals in grass-fungal endophyte associations. Rec. Adv. Phytochem., 30, 81–119. In: J.T., Romeo, J.A., Saunders, P., Barbosa, (eds) phytochemical diversity and redundancy in ecological interactions. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, vol. 30. Springer, Boston. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1754-6_4
  94. Siegel, M.R., Dahlman, D.L., Bush, L.P. (1989). The role of endophytic fungi in grasses: new approchs to biological control of pests. In: A.R., Leslie, R.L. Metcalf (eds.), Integrated pest management for turfgrass and ornamentals. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 169–186.
  95. Siegel, M.R., Latch, G.C.M., Johnson, M.C. (1985). Acremonium fungal endophytes of tall fescue and perennial ryegrass: significance and control. Plant Dis., 69(2), 179–183.
  96. Stone, J.K., Bacon, C.W., White, J.F. (2000). An overview of endophytic microbes: endophytism defined. In: C.W., Bacon, J.F. White (eds.), Microbial endophytes. Marcel Dekker, New York, 3–29.
  97. Takach, J.E., Mittal, S., Swoboda, G.A. et al. (2012). Genotypic and chemotypic diversity of Neotyphodium endophytes in tall fescue from Greece. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 78(16), 5501–5510. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01084-12
  98. Takach, J.E., Young, C.A. (2014). Alkaloid genotype diversityof tall fescue endophytes. Crop Sci., 54, 667–678. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2013.06.0423
  99. Talamantes, D.R., Phillips, C., Young, C. et al. (2025). The relationships among alkaloid production, fungal biomass, and host genetics in the tall fescue-Epichloë symbiosis. bioRxiv preprint. https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.05.30.657052
  100. Thom, E.R., Popay, A.J., Hume, D.E. et al. (2012). Evaluating the performance of endophytes in farm systems to improve farmer outcomes – a review. Crop Past. Sci., 63(10), 927–943, http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/CP12152
  101. Tian, B., Xie, J., Fu, Y. et al. (2020). A cosmopolitan fungal pathogen of dicots adopts an endophytic lifestyle on cereal crops and protects them from major fungal diseases. ISME J., 14(12), 3120–3135. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-020-00744-6
  102. Tsai, H.F., Liu, J.S., Staben, C. et al. (1994). Evolutionary diversification of fungal endophytes of tall fescue by hybridization with Epichloë species. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 91(7), 2542–2546. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.7.2542
  103. Vassiliadis, S., Elkins, A.C., Reddy, P. et al. (2019). A simple LC–MS method for the quantitation of alkaloids in endophyte-infected perennial ryegrass. Toxins, 11, 649. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110649
  104. Vassiliadis, S., Reddy, P., Hemsworth, J. et al. (2023). Quantitation and distribution of Epichloë-derived alkaloids in perennial ryegrass tissues. Metabolites, 13, 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13020205
  105. Vazquez de Aldana, B.R., Garcia Ciudad, A., Zabalgogeazcoa, I. et al. (2001). Ergovaline levels in cultivars of Festuca arundinacea. Animal. Feed Sci. Technol., 93, 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-8401(01)00285-1
  106. Vikuk, V., Young, C.A., Lee, S.T. et al. (2019). Infection rates and alkaloid patterns of different grass species with systemic Epichloë endophytes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 85(17), e00465-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00465-19
  107. von Cräutlein, M., Helander, M., Korpelainen, H. et al. (2021). Genetic diversity of the symbiotic fungus Epichloë festucae in naturally occurring host grass populations. Front. Microbiol., 12, 756991. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.756991
  108. Wang, C., Shi, C., Huang, W. et al. (2024). The impact of aboveground Epichloë endophytic fungi on the rhizosphere microbial functions of the host Melica transsilvanica. Microorganisms, 12, 956, https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12050956
  109. Wang, J., Hou, W., Christensen, M.J. et al. (2020). Role of Epichloë endophytes in improving host grass resistance ability and soil properties. J. Agric. Food Chem., 68(26), 6944–6955. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01396
  110. Wang, Z., Zhao, F., Bao, Q., Liu, X., Guo, C. (2025). Identification and characterization of three Epichloë endophytes isolated from wild barley in China. J Fungi., 11(2), 142. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11020142
  111. White Jr, J.F. (1994). Taxonomic relationships among the members of the Balansiae (Clavicipitales). In: C.W., Bacon, J.F., White, Jr (eds.), Biotechnology of endophytic fungi of grasses. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 3–20.
  112. White Jr, J.F. (1997). Systematic of the graminicolous Clavicipitaceae: applications of morphological and molecular approaches. In: C.W., Bacon, N.S., Hill (eds.), Neotyphodium/grass interactions. Plenum Press, New York, 27–39.
  113. White Jr, J.F., Cole, G.T. (1985). Endophyte – host associations in forage grasses. I. Distributions of fungal endophytes in some species of Lolium and Festuca. Mycologia, 77, 323–327.
  114. White Jr, J.F., Reddy, P.V. (1998). Examination of structure and molecular phylogenetic relationships of some Graminicolous symbionts in genera Epichloë and Parepichloë. Mycologia, 90, 226‒234.
  115. Wiewióra, B. (2011). Grzyby endofityczne z rodzaju Neotyphodium występujące w trawach wieloletnich w Polsce oraz ich znaczenie dla upraw pastewnych i trawnikowych. Mon. Rozpr. Nauk. IHAR-PIB, 38, 1–115.
  116. Wiewióra, B., Żurek, G., Pańka, D. (2015). Is the vertical transmission of Neotyphodium lolii in perennial ryegrass the only possible way to the spread of endophytes? Plos One, 10(2), e 0117231. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117231
  117. Wilson, D. (1995). Endophyte: the evolution of a term and clarification of its use and definition. Oikos, 73, 274‒276. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3545919
  118. Zabalgogeazcoa, I. (2008). Review. Fungal endophytes and their interaction with plant pathogens. Spanish J. Agric. Res., 6 (special issue), 138‒146.
  119. Zhao, X., Muhammad Aslam, M., Chen, M. et al. (2025). Plant–fungi mutualism, alternative splicing, and defense responses: balancing symbiosis and immunity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26, 5197. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26115197
  120. Zhong, R., Zhang, L., Zhang, X. (2022). Allelopathic effects of foliar Epichloë endophytes on belowground arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: a meta-analysis. Agriculture, 12, 1768. https://doi.org/10.3390/ agriculture12111768
  121. Żurek, M., Ochodzki, P., Wiewióra, B. (2010). Ocena zawartości ergowaliny w trawach runi wybranych trwałych użytków zielonych na terenie województwa mazowieckiego. Biul. IHAR, 257–258, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.37317/biul-2010-0004

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Similar Articles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.