Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
ASPHC Baner

ONLINE FIRST

Research paper

Effects of NPK fertilization, cultivar, and row spacing on seed yield and fatty acid composition of amaranth (Amaranthus spp.)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24326/asphc.2026.5638
Submitted: 3 December 2025
Published: 01.04.2026

Abstract

Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is a pseudo-cereal with increasing agronomic and nutritional importance due to its high seed yield potential and valuable lipid composition. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of NPK fertilization level, cultivar, row spacing and their interactions on yield components, crude fat content, fat yield and fatty acid composition of amaranth seeds. A three-year field experiment (2016–2018) was conducted in southeastern Poland using two cultivars (Rawa and Aztek), four levels of NPK fertilization and two row spacings (30 and 55 cm). The results showed that cultivar was the main factor differentiating seed yield, crude fat content, fat yield and fatty acid composition. The Aztek cultivar produced significantly higher seed yield and fat yield, whereas Rawa was characterized by a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Row spacing significantly affected plant density and yield structure, while increasing NPK fertilization enhanced seed and fat yield. Significant two-factor interactions were identified. The interaction between fertilization level and cultivar significantly affected palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) acids, whereas the interaction between row spacing and cultivar influenced linoleic acid content (C18:2, n-6) and the n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio. These results confirm that both quantitative and qualitative traits of amaranth seeds are determined by complex interactions between genetic and agrotechnical factors.

References

  1. Achremowicz, B., Ceglińska, A., Haber, T. et al. (2015). Ogólna charakterystyka i technologiczne wykorzystanie nasion szarłatu. Część I. Ogólna charakterystyka szarłatu [General characteristics and technological use of amaranth seeds. Part I. General characteristics of amaranth]. Post. Tech. Przetw. Spoż., 1, 118–125.
  2. Akamine, H., Ohshiro, M., Hossain, M.A. (2021). Effects of N, P and K fertilizers on edible amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) grown on the red soil of Okinawa. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res., 19(3), 2333–2346. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1903_23332346
  3. Azri, A., Aydi, S.S., Aydi, S. et al.(2025). Nutritional and bioactive lipid composition of Amaranthus seeds grown in varied agro-climatic conditions in France. Agronomy, 15, 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15030672
  4. Baraniak, J., Kania-Dobrowolska, M. (2022). The dual nature of amaranth-functional food and potential medicine. Foods, 11(4), 618. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11040618
  5. Barrio, D.A, Añón, M.C. (2010). Potential antitumor properties of a protein isolate obtained from the seeds of Amaranthus mantegazzianus. Eur. J. Nutr., 49(2), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-009-0051-9
  6. Bartkowiak-Broda, I., Wałkowski, T., Ogrodowczyk, M. (2005). Przyrodnicze i agrotechniczne możliwości kształtowania jakości nasion rzepaku [Natural and agrotechnical possibilities of shaping the quality of rapeseed seeds]. Pam. Puł., 139, 7–19.
  7. Bielski, S., Szwejkowska, B. (2015). Influence of some agro-technical treatments on the development and yields of amaranth. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci., 21(4), 909–915. Available: http://www.agrojournal.org/21/04-34.pdf [date of access: 11.02.2025].
  8. Bozorov, S.S., Berdiev, N.S., Ishimov, U.J. et al. (2018). Chemical composition and biological activity of seed oil of amaranth varieties. Nova Biotechnol. Chim., 17(1), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.2478/nbec-2018-0007
  9. Calder, P.C. (2017). Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: from molecules to man. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 15, 45(5), 1105–1115. https://doi.org/10.1042/BST20160474
  10. Cerone, M., Smith, T.K. (2022). Desaturases: Structural and mechanistic insights into the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. IUBMB Life, 74(11), 1036–1051. https://doi.org/10.1002/iub.2671
  11. Deryło, S., Chudzik, Ł. (2015). Planowanie szarłatu uprawnego (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. Thell.) w warunkach zróżnicowanej przedsiewnej uprawy roli i pielęgnacji roślin [Cultivation of grain amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. Thell.) under conditions of varied pre-sowing soil tillage and plant care]. Annales UMCS, sec. E, Agricultura, 70(2), 55–65.
  12. El Gendy, A.N.G., Tavarini, S., Conte, G. et al. (2018). Yield and qualitative characterisation of seeds of Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. and Amaranthus cruentus L. grown in central Italy. Ital. J. Agron., 13(1), 993. https://doi.org/10.4081/ija.2017.993
  13. Escudero, N.L., de Arellano, M.L., Luco, J.M. et al. (2004). Comparison of the chemical composition and nutritional value of Amaranthus cruentus flour and its protein concentrate. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 59(1), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-004-0033-3
  14. Gamel, T.H., Mesallam, A.S., Damir, A.A. et al. (2007). Characteristics of amaranth seed oil. Int. J. Food Prop., 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942910600596442
  15. Gimplinger, D.M., Dobos, G., Schönlechner, R. et al. (2007). Yield and quality of grain amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) in Eastern Austria. Plant Soil Environ., 53(3), 105-112.
  16. Gontarczyk, M. (1996). Szarłat uprawny – Amaranthus spp. [Grain amaranth – Amaranthus spp.]. In: Nowe rośliny uprawne na cele spożywcze, przemysłowe i jako odnawialne źródła energii [New crop plants for food, industrial purposes, and as renewable energy sources], Nalborczyk, E. (ed.). Wyd. SGGW, Warszawa, 21–43.
  17. Graham, M.W. (2010). Grain amaranth production and effects of soil amendments in Uganda. Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Paper 11462. Iowa State University, USA. https://doi.org/10.31274/etd-180810-102
  18. Grobelnik Mlakar, S., Bavec, M., Jakop, M. et al. (2012). The effect of drought occurring at different growth stages on productivity of grain amaranth Amaranthus cruentus G6. J. Life Sci., 6(3), 283–286.
  19. Haliniarz, M., Bujak, K., Gawęda, D. et al. (2013). Reakcja pszenicy jarej na uproszczenia w uprawie roli i zróżnicowany poziom nawożenia mineralnego [Response of spring wheat to simplifications in soil cultivation and varied levels of mineral fertilization]. Acta Sci. Pol, Agricultura (Agronomia), 12(3), 13–24.
  20. He, H.P., Cai, Y., Sun, M. et al. (2002). Extraction and purification of squalene from amaranthus grain. J. Agric. Food Chem., 50(2), 368–372. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf010918p
  21. He, H.P., Corke, H. (2003). Oil and squalene in amaranthus grain and leaf. J. Agric. Food Chem., 51(27), 7913–7920. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf034775p
  22. Jahaniaval, F., Kakuda, Y., Marcone, M.F. (2000). Fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions of seed oils of five amaranthus accessions and their comparison to other oils. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 77(8), 847–852. Available: http://lib3.dss.go.th/fulltext/Journal/J.AOCS/J.AOCS/2000/no.8/aug2000vol77,no8,p847-852.pdf [date of access: 23.04.2025].
  23. Jan, N., Hussain, S., Naseer, B. et al. (2023). Amaranth and quinoa as potential nutraceuticals: a review of anti-nutritional factors, health benefits and their applications in food, medicinal and cosmetic sectors. Food Chem. X., 18, 100687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100687
  24. Januszewska-Jóźwiak, K., Synowiecki, J. (2008). Charakterystyka i przydatność składników szarłatu w biotechnologii żywności. [Characteristics and suitability of amaranth components in food biotechnology]. Biotechnologia, 3(82), 89–102.
  25. Jendrzejczak, E., Śmigerska, K. (2014). Impact of presowing soaking of amaranth seeds in solutions of growth regulators. Part II. Effect of treatments processing seed material on growth, development and yield of amaranth cv. Rawa. Acta Sci. Pol., Agricultura, 13(4), 53–64.
  26. Kotecki, A., Kozak, M., Malarz, W. (2005). Wpływ zróżnicowanej technologii uprawy na rozwój i plonowanie odmian rzepaku ozimego [The influence of diversified cultivation technology on the growth and yield of winter rapeseed varieties]. Rośliny Oleist – Oilseed Crops, 26(1), 111–124.
  27. Kotecki, A., Malarz, W., Kozak, M. et al. (2007). Wpływ rozmieszczenia roślin w łanie na rozwój i plonowanie mieszańcowych i populacyjnych odmian rzepaku. Część II. Skład chemiczny i wartość energetyczna [The influence of plant distribution in the stand on the growth and yield of hybrid and population varieties of rapeseed. Part II. Chemical composition and energy value]. Zesz. Nauk. UP Wroc. 553, Rolnictwo, 90, 41–65.
  28. Kozak, M., Malarz, W., Kotecki, A. et al. (2011). Wpływ zróżnicowanego nawożenia azotem na rozwój, plonowanie i skład chemiczny nasion amarantusa uprawnego [The effect of varied nitrogen fertilization on the growth, yield, and chemical composition of cultivated amaranth seeds]. Zesz. Nauk. UP Wroc. 581, Rolnictwo, 98, 79–94.
  29. Krasowska, P. (2022). Effect of different NPK fertilisation and cultivar on the size, quality and healthiness of amaranth seed yield. Ph.D. Thesis. Typescript, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland.
  30. León-Camacho, M., Garcia-Gonzalez, D.L., Aparicio, R. (2001). A detailed and comprehensive study of amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) oil fatty profile. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 213, 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002170100340
  31. Malik, M., Sindhu, R., Dhull, S.B. et al. (2023). Nutritional composition, functionality, and processing technologies for amaranth. J. Food Process. Preserv., 1753029. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1753029
  32. Managa, G.M., Nemadodzi, L.E. (2023). Comparison of agronomic parameters and nutritional composition on red and green amaranth species grown in open field versus greenhouse environment. Agriculture, 13, 685. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030685
  33. Martínez-Núñez, M., Ruiz-Rivas, M., Vera-Hernández, P.F. et al. (2019). The phenological growth stages of different amaranth species grown in restricted spaces based in BBCH code. S. Afr. J. Bot., 124, 436-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.05.035
  34. Mndzebele, B., Ncube, B., Fessehazion, M., et al. (2023). Assessment of the effects of NPK fertilizer on edible yield and agro-biological parameters in a cowpea–amaranth intercrop. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 7, 1210984. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1210984
  35. Moszak, M., Zawada, A., Grzymisławski, M. (2008). Właściwości oraz zastosowanie oleju rzepakowego i oleju z amarantusa w leczeniu zaburzeń metabolicznych związanych z otyłością [Properties and applications of rapeseed oil and amaranth oil in the treatment of metabolic disorders associated with obesity]. Forum Zaburzeń Metab., 9(2), 53–64.
  36. Nasirpour-Tabrizi, P., Azadmard-Damirchi, S., Hesari, J. et al. (2020). Amaranth seed oil composition. Nutritional Value of Amaranth. IntechOpen. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91381 [date of access: 23.06.2025].
  37. Olofintoye, J.A.T., Abayomi, Y.A., Olugbemi, O. (2015). Yield response of grain amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) varieties to varying planting density and soil amendment. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 10(21), 2218–2225. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2015.9746
  38. Olufolaji, A.O., Odeleye, F.O., Ojo, O.D. (2010). Effect of soil moisture stress on the emergence, establishment and productivity of amaranthus (Amaranthus cruentus L.). Agric. Biol. J. N. Am., 1(6), 1170–1180. Hhtps://doi.org/10.5251/abjna.2010.1.6.1169.1181
  39. Petkova, Z.Y., Antova, G.A., Angelova-Romova, M.I. et al. (2019). A comparative study on chemical and lipid composition of amaranth seeds with different origin. Bulgar. Chem. Commun., 51, D, 262–267.
  40. Piecyk, M., Worobiej, E., Rębiś, M. et al. (2009). Content and characteristics of nutrients in amaranth products. Bromat. Chem. Toksykol., 42(2), 147–153.
  41. PN-79R-65950. Materiał siewny. Metody badania nasion [Seed material. Methods of seed testing.].
  42. Pusz, W., Pląskowska, E., Yildirim, I. et al. (2015). Fungi occurring on the plants of the genus Amaranthus L. Turk. J. Bot., 39, 147–161. https://doi.org 10.3906/bot-1403-106
  43. Ratusz, K., Wirkowska, M. (2006). Charakterystyka nasion i lipidów amarantusa [Characteristics of amaranth seeds and lipids.]. Rośl. Oleiste – Oilseed Crops, 27(2), Suppl., 243–250.
  44. Sayed-Ahmad, B., Urrutigoïty, M., Hijazi, A. et al. (2022). Amaranth oilseed composition and cosmetic applications. Separations, 9(7), 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations9070181
  45. Schafleitner, R., Lin, Y.-P., Dinssa, F.F., et al. (2022). The World Vegetable Center Amaranthus germplasm collection: core collection development and evaluation of agronomic and nutritional traits. Crop Sci., 62(3), 1240–1256. https://doi.org/10.1002/csc2.20715
  46. Simopoulos, A.P. (2016). An increase in the Omega-6/Omega-3 fatty acid ratio increases the risk for obesity. Nutrients, 8(3), 128. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8030128
  47. Skwaryło-Bednarz, B. (2010). Zawartość tłuszczu oraz tokoferoli w nasionach krajowych odmian szarłatu (Amaranthus cruentus L.) w warunkach zróżnicowanego nawożenia makroelementami [Fat and tocopherol content in seeds of domestic amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) cultivars under differentiated macronutrient fertilization conditions.]. Acta Agrophys., 15(2), 409–415.
  48. Skwaryło-Bednarz, B. (2012). Assessment of content of fat and tocopherols in seeds of amaranthus in relation to diversified fertilization with macroelements. Ecol. Chem. Eng. S, 19(2), 273–279. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10216-011-0021-z
  49. Skwaryło-Bednarz, B., Brodowska, M.S., Brodowski, R. (2011). Evaluating the influence of varied NPK fertilization on yielding and microelements contents at amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) depending on its cultivar and plant spacing. Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus, 10(4), 245–261.
  50. Skwaryło-Bednarz, B., Brodowska, M.S., Onuch, J. et al. (2014). Plonowanie krajowych odmian szarłatu (Amaranthus cruentus L.) w warunkach zróżnicowanego nawożenia makroelementami [Yield performance of domestic amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) cultivars under differentiated macronutrient fertilization conditions.]. Ann. UMCS, sec. E, Agricultura, 69(2), 37–43.
  51. Skwaryło-Bednarz, B., Nalborczyk, E. (2006). Uprawa i wykorzystanie amarantusa [Cultivation and utilization of amaranth.]. Wieś Jutra, 4(93), 52–55.
  52. Skwaryło-Bednarz, B., Stępniak, P., Jamiołkowska, A. et al. (2020). Amaranth seeds as a source of nutrients and bioactive substances in human diet. Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus, 19(6), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.24326/asphc.2020.6.13
  53. Soriano-García, M., Aguirre-Díaz, I.S. (2019). Nutritional functional value and therapeutic utilization of amaranth. In: V.Y. Waisundara, Nutritional value of amaranth. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86897
  54. Spasibionek, S. (2007). Postępy w badaniach nad genetyką i hodowlą rzepaku (Brassica napus L.) [Advances in research on rapeseed genetics and breeding (Brassica napus L.)]. Rośliny Oleiste – Oilseed Crops, 28, 68–73.
  55. Sułek, A., Podolska, G., Jaśkiewicz, B. (2016). Plonowanie i zdrowotność dwóch podgatunków pszenicy w zależności od udziału zbóż w strukturze zasiewów w warunkach integrowanej produkcji [Yield and health of two wheat subspecies depending on the share of cereals in the crop structure under integrated production conditions]. Pol. J. Agron., 27, 118–125.
  56. Tömösközi, S. et al. (2009). Comparative study of composition and technological quality of amaranth. I. Gross chemical composition, amino acid and mineral content. Acta Aliment., 38, 341–347. https://doi.org/10.1556/AAlim.38.2009.3.8
  57. Tyrus, M., Lykhochvor, V., Hnativ, P. et al. (2024). The effect of mineral fertilizer doses on amaranth grain quality in the wet climate of Western Ukraine. J. Elementol., 29(3), 635–646. https://doi.org/10.5601/jelem.2024.29.2.3359
  58. USDA FoodData Central. 2023. Amaranth grain. U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 > >> 

Similar Articles

<< < 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.